The Nikon D5500 is the brand new entry-level DSLR from Nikon. It supersedes the D5300 and takes its place as the flagship APS-C sensor camera from Nikon. The D5500 features a new 24.2MP CMOS sensor, an EXPEED 4 image processor, a 39 point autofocus system (9 cross-type), an 11 point hot-shoe AF system, and 1080p video recording at 60/30/24p.
Nikon released its highly anticipated newest DSLR camera on May 9, 2015. The long-awaited Nikon d5500 comes in as an entry-level model to replace the Nikon d5300. The camera’s built-in Wi-Fi and GPS allow users to easily share and transfer their images online or to a mobile device. The package includes the camera, a rechargeable lithium ion battery that is rated for 1,110 shots per charge, a battery charger, one lithium ion EN-EL14a battery, an EH-5b AC adapter kit, a USB cable clip and neck strap.
The Nikon D5500 (also called D5500) is the entry-level DSLR camera from Nikon for those stepping up from their smartphone cameras or wanting to get better photos without breaking the bank. The D5500 does exactly that, with a 24.2MP APS-C sensor, great lens selection, fully articulating touchscreen and Wi-Fi connectivity it makes a great choice for first-time DSLR users.
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Shopping for a digital camera? We’re here to help. PCMag reviews all types of photo gear, everything from pocket friendly cameras to high-end gear for pro photographers. It’s a diverse space, one that can be hard to navigate if you don’t spend all of your free time reading photo blogs and talking about your favorite new lens on an enthusiast forum.
We’re here to help you find a camera that suits your needs, regardless of whether you’re a family photographer looking for something better than a basic Android phone, or an enthusiast trying to decide between an SLR or mirrorless camera system.
Nikon d5500 price in Nigeria
If you have an idea of what type of camera you’re looking for, you can look at the list up top for a quick recommendation. Otherwise, read on as we break down each type of camera you can buy, and point you toward some of your best options. PCMag reviews dozens of cameras each year, we’re here to help you find one that fits your needs.
Pocket Friendly: Entry-Level Point-and-Shoot Cameras
It’s no secret that smartphones have seriously hurt the demand for entry-level point-and-shoot cameras. The latest from Apple, the iPhone 13, is a better camera than any low-cost compact, and Android fans can net great snapshots with handsets like the Samsung Galaxy S21 and the Hasselblad-powered OnePlus 9. High-end phones cost, but if you’re already buying a fancy phone, there’s no reason to buy a low-end camera too. If you’ve embraced smartphone photography, peruse our top camera phone picks to help find your next phone (and check out tips for taking the best smartphone photos).
The Best Digital Camera Deals This Week*
*Deals are selected by our partner, TechBargains
Canon EOS Rebel T7 DSLR Camera Bundle — $599.00
Sony Alpha 7R IV Full Frame Mirrorless Camera Body — $3,498.00
If you aren’t a smartphone user, or have opted to go for a basic model without a fancy computational camera, you can buy any number of sub-$100 no-name cameras at online retailers, but I’d avoid them like the plague. If you can spend more than a $100, you’ll get the best results by sticking to a Canon, Nikon, Panasonic, or Sony model.
Most sub-$200 cameras pack decent zoom power, setting them apart from smartphones, but are built around older CCD sensor technology. The 20MP CCD sensors used across the current generation has plenty of resolution, but suffers in dim light and limits video to 720p quality.
Moving up to the $200 to $400 price nets more modern CMOS image sensors and very long zoom lenses—30x is the standard at this point. For the most part video is still 1080p, and you’ll also see some cameras with small electronic viewfinders, Raw shooting capability, and very quick autofocus. Pure image quality isn’t any better than a midrange smartphone, with the real advantage being the zoom lens.
Adventure-Proof: Underwater and Rugged Cameras
Olympus digital camera
Olympus Tough cameras are waterproof (Photo: Paul Maljak)
A rugged, waterproof camera is a good option if you’re an outdoor adventurer, snorkeler, beachgoer, or just a bit of a klutz. For around $450 the Olympus Tough TG-6 is our favorite, it’s easily the best rugged compact available today. If you don’t want to spend that much, you can get a Ricoh WG-70 for under $300, or the slim Panasonic Lumix TS30 for less than $200. We’ve broken down our favorite waterproof cameras in a separate story.
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You can also go the action cam route. You’ll get better video and quality still images from the GoPro Hero10 Black or DJI Action 2, but you’ll give up zoom power to get there. It’s a trade-off you may want to make, especially if you’re interested in slow-motion video. For more, click through to see our favorite action cams.
Small Camera, Big Sensor: Premium Compacts
You may scratch your head when you see pocket cameras with fixed lenses selling for anywhere from $400 to $1,300. After all, you can get an interchangeable lens model for the same price. But these slim, premium shooters target a very specific market—photographers who already own a mirrorless camera or SLR and a bunch of lenses, but want something small as an alternative option.
Pocket cameras with 1-inch sensors compete with iPhones on image quality, offer some zoom power, and have sounder ergonomics for handheld photography. These are the type of models that dominate our top point-and-shoot list.
Canon PowerShot G5 X Mark II
Canon PowerShot G5 X Mark II (Photo: Jim Fisher)
If you’re interested in a basic big-sensor model, the Canon G9 X Mark II is a solid pick for under $500. You can spend more on a G7 X Mark III to add a tilt screen and step up to a better lens, or go for our Editors’ Choice G5 X Mark II and its eye-level electronic viewfinder. Canon’s G series competes with the long-running Sony RX100 family—they’re all cameras.
Some enthusiast-oriented models include even bigger sensors, from Micro Four Thirds up to full-frame, typically with matched with a quality prime lens. The Fujfiilm X100V is the best of the bunch, and one of the few compacts out there with a big optical viewfinder.
Fujifilm X100V
Fujifilm X100V (Photo: Jim Fisher)
Its competitors vary greatly in concept and form. The Ricoh GR III and IIIx are built for urban documentary imaging, with ergonomics titled for one-handed operation and a snapshot focus mode for focus-free imaging. Going the other direction, the boutique Zeiss ZX1 includes Adobe Lightroom built-in, along with a big touch screen.
And we can’t forget to mention the Leica Q2 Monochrom, one of the few digitals out there with a sensor made just for black-and-white imaging. These aren’t big tent cameras, but it can be rewarding to stray from the beaten path.
Zoom in Close: Bridge Cameras
You can opt for a fixed-lens camera that’s sized and shaped a lot like an SLR—a bridge camera. These models tend to have really long lenses—the Nikon P1000 has the most optical zoom power, 125x. Long lenses require some extra care to use, so these cameras usually include an eye-level EVF, a hot shoe to mount accessories, and an articulating display.
Canon camera
Canon PowerShot SX70 HS (Photo: Zlata Ivleva)
Bridge models may look like interchangeable lens cameras, but typically don’t do well in dim light. Our favorite consumer model, the 65x zoom power Canon PowerShot SX70 HS, gets tight views for backyard birding and trips to the zoo, but its lens is best used outdoors under the sun.
You can spend a bit more for a big sensor bridge camera. The midrange Panasonic FZ1000 II and premium Sony RX10 IV are built around bigger image sensors and have optics that gather more light—both advantages for use in tough light.
Entry-Level Interchangeable Lens: SLR and Mirrorless
If you’re shopping for a starter camera with swappable lenses you’ve got a choice to make: go the old route and get an SLR, or spend a little bit more on a more capable mirrorless camera.
Both types of cameras use changeable lenses, backed by image sensors that dwarf those used by in pocket and bridge cameras. SLRs use an optical viewfinder and mirror to direct light to your eye, and a discrete phase detection sensor to set autofocus.
Nikon camera
Nikon D3500 (Photo: Zlata Ivleva)
Mirrorless cameras drop the optical finder, most have an OLED electronic viewfinder in its place. Autofocus is performed from the image sensor, for better subject recognition and tracking than entry SLRs.
SLRs aren’t the wonders they once were, but you can usually get started with one for less than a mirrorless camera. The NIkon D3500 is our favorite, priced around $600 with a lens. If you prefer a Canon model we recommend stepping up to the midrange EOS Rebel SL3, the basic Rebel T7 is one to avoid.
Fujifilm camera
Fujifilm X-T30 (Photo: Zlata Ivleva)
Cameras from Fujifilm and Sony, and Micro Four Thirds models from the OM System (the new name for Olympus) and Panasonic, are among the leading mirrorless brands. There are many good options under $1,000 suitable for general photography. These affordable mirrorless cameras are quicker to focus than SLRs, support high-speed burst modes, and 4K video.
You’ll want to take some care selecting a camera if you expect to buy some extra lenses, but all have the basic options covered. Micro Four Thirds, Fujifilm, and Sony cameras have the biggest selection of lenses, while Canon EOS M and Nikon Z lag behind.
For Serious Shutterbugs: Premium Mirrorless and SLR
When you spend more than $1,000 for a camera, you don’t necessarily see a big jump in image quality versus entry-level models. Camera makers like to streamline sensors across an entire line of models, as it allows them to develop technology once that can be used across their catalog.
Your extra money typically gets you better build quality, faster memory card slots for longer burst shooting, and higher capture rates. All of these are important for enthusiasts interested in capturing fast action, and outdoor photographers who want some level of weather protection.
Fujifilm X-T4
Fujifilm X-T4 (Photo: Jim Fisher)
The Fujifilm X-T4 is our favorite mirrorless camera for shutterbugs and enthusiasts. We love its sturdy construction, quick autofocus, and stabilized image sensor. It’s a real do-it-all camera, with a strong system of lenses behind it. We also like the Sony a6600 and Panasonic Lumix GH5 Mark II.
We tend to recommend EVF cameras more highly—on-sensor autofocus leads to more in-focus shots, and models with stabilized sensors do a good job reducing the number of blurry, shaky photos you’ll take. Mirrorless cameras dominate our list of favorite interchangeable lens cameras.
Pentax K-3 Mark III
Pentax K-3 Mark III (Photo: Jim Fisher)
If you prefer an optical viewfinder we recommend you take a look at the Canon EOS 90D, Nikon D500, or Pentax K-3 Mark III. The 90D has the fullest set of lenses behind it, and the best video toolkit of the bunch. The Pentax K-3 Mark III is a bit better built, and has some very specialized lenses, including a fan favorite line of compact primes, DA Limited.
A Bigger Sensor: Full-Frame
Full-frame cameras—those with image sensors that match the size of 35mm film—are accessible options for enthusiasts thanks to falling prices. Basic models start around $1,000, capable midrange options can be had for around $2,000. You can spend more for a specialty model, they range anywhere from $3,000 all the way up to $6,500.
Canon EOS RP
Canon EOS RP (Photo: Jim Fisher)
The Canon EOS RP is our favorite low-cost model. Its feature set covers the basics, and Canon has done a fine job adding affordable lens options since its release. It is missing a stabilized image sensor, something you can get with the RP’s competitors, Nikon Z 5 and Sony a7C.
Panasonic Lumix DC-S5
Panasonic Lumix DC-S5 (Photo: Jim Fisher)
Our midrange pick is the Panasonic Lumix DC-S5, and L-mount mirrorless with a stabilized sensor and 10-bit video. We also continue to recommend the older Sony a7 III, it’s still one of the better midrange picks years into its lifespan. We’ve not yet reviewed its successor, the a7 IV, it has some significant upgrades, but comes with a price increase too—$2,500 versus $2,000 for the a7 III.
For more specialized recommendations and models, as well as an overview of what each full-frame camera system offers, be sure to read our full-frame camera buying guide.
Bigger Than Full-Frame: Medium Format
Medium format digital cameras used to be the tools reserved for the most successful (or well-funded) photographers. You can still drop $50,000 on a Phase One IQ4 150MP if you’d like, but for most of us the prospect is rather silly. Medium format doesn’t have to cost that much.
Hasselblad 907X
Hasselblad 907X (Photo: Jim Fisher)
Fujifilm’s GFX line has dropped the price of entry to medium format to its lowest point, $4,000 for a 50MP GFX 50S II or $6,000 for the 100MP GFX 100S. That’s still quite a bit of money, but loads less than in years past, especially when you consider both of these cameras have a stabilized image sensor.
Fujfiilm isn’t the only game in town. Hasselblad has its own mirrorless medium format system, one that includes the analog throwback 907X. Pentax still sells its medium format SLR, the 645Z, too, if you prefer an optical viewfinder.
What Is the Best Camera to Buy for a Beginner Photographer?
Smartphones and basic point-and-shoots are designed for automatic operation. If you want to take up photography as a hobby, or aspire to be a photojournalist or wedding pro, you’ll want to get a camera that gives you room to grow and learn the craft.
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I’d recommend getting a good mirrorless camera to start. The Sony a6400 or Fujifilm X-T30 can be used in fully automatic mode, but also offer total manual control over exposure. Because they use electronic viewfinders, you can see a preview of your final exposure before you take the shot. If you’re thinking about starting with a full-frame model—the type of camera most pros use—think about the Canon EOS RP or Nikon Z 5 as a starter model.
Nikon Z 5
Nikon Z 5 (Photo: Jim Fisher)
When shopping for a starter camera, ask yourself some questions about what you want. Take a look at the size, as a camera isn’t any good if you’re not going to carry and use it. But also think about connectivity—you probably want to copy images to your smartphone easily—and price. Ease of use isn’t a huge hurdle these days—everything has an auto mode—but models with guided interfaces will let you take some sort of control over how your photos turn out, without having to know too much technical jargon.
Kicking It Old School: Film Cameras
You don’t have to get a digital camera to get a camera. Film is still an option, with instant cameras being extremely popular. Instant formats take away the hassle of getting film developed, and make it easy to share physical images with friends and family immediately after they’ve been captured. You can get an entry-level model for around $65, and film packs generally cost around $7.50. The Fujifilm Instax Mini 11 is our favorite basic model, and the SQ1 is there if you prefer square prints.
Camera film
The Lomography Sprocket Rocket captures panoramic images with exposed sprocket holes (Photo: Jim Fisher)
You can also buy a new 35mm or medium format camera. You don’t have as many options for getting film developed as you used to—if you’re in a major city it’ll be easy to find a lab, but you may have to resort to mail order if you’re not close to a metropolis. You can find old film SLRs and compacts in thrift shops and online stores pretty easily. If you’re intent on buying a new model, Lomography still makes a bunch of different ones, from toy models like the Sprocket Rocket, which captures panoramic shots with exposed sprockets, to premium options like the medium format LC-A 120.
The Best Cameras for Travelers
Not surprisingly, we find bridge models to be just about perfect for globetrotters. They pack a wide zoom range, so you don’t have to fumble with lens changes. And if you opt for a premium 1-inch model you can shoot in varying types of light. But you may want a different kind of camera to take with you on your journeys.
If you want something more pocket-friendly, a point-and-shoot can do the trick. But be prepared to get a little spendy for a camera worthy of your exotic destinations. For the rough-and-tumble crowd, I recommend the Olympus TG-6 due to its bright lens and tough build. (If you’re more of a video person, don’t forget about the GoPro Hero10 Black.)
Hand holding Sony digital camera
The Sony RX100 series is sized for travel (Photo: Zlata Ivleva)
For more leisurely vacations, reach for a premium compact like a Sony RX100 model or Canon G7 X Mark III and enjoy the comfortable form factor of a camera and image quality that’s a tad better than your smartphone.
If you don’t mind carrying something larger, a good mirrorless camera (and a couple of lenses) will fit easily into a small bag and net images and videos worthy of sharing with friends and family back home. The Canon EOS M50 Mark II is a good affordable option, and there are alternatives like the Fujifilm X-E4 that are a bit more stylish.
Mechanics
Basic elements of a modern digital single-lens reflex (SLR) still camera
Most cameras capture light from the visible spectrum, while specialized cameras capture other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as infrared.[2]: vii
All cameras use the same basic design: light enters an enclosed box through a converging or convex lens and an image is recorded on a light-sensitive medium.[3] A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light enters the camera.[4]: 1182–1183
Most cameras also have a viewfinder, which shows the scene to be recorded, along with means to adjust various combinations of focus, aperture and shutter speed.[5]: 4
Exposure control
Main article: Exposure (photography)
Aperture
Main article: Aperture
Different apertures of a lens
Light enters a camera through the aperture, an opening adjusted by overlapping plates called the aperture ring.[6][7][8] Typically located in the lens,[9] this opening can be widened or narrowed to alter the amount of light that strikes the film or sensor.[6] The size of the aperture can be set manually, by rotating the lens or adjusting a dial, or automatically based on readings from an internal light meter.[6]
As the aperture is adjusted, the opening expands and contracts in increments called f-stops.[a][6] The smaller the f-stop, the more light is allowed to enter the lens, increasing the exposure. Typically, f-stops range from f/1.4 to f/32[b] in standard increments: 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, and 32.[11] The light entering the camera is halved with each increasing increment.[9]
The wider opening at lower f-stops narrows the range of focus so the background is blurry while the foreground is in focus. This depth of field increases as the aperture closes. A narrow aperture results in a high depth of field, meaning that objects at many different distances from the camera will appear to be in focus.[12] What is acceptably in focus is determined by the circle of confusion, the photographic technique, the equipment in use and the degree of magnification expected of the final image.[13]
Shutter
Main article: Shutter (photography)
The shutter, along with the aperture, is one of two ways to control the amount of light entering the camera. The shutter determines the duration that the light-sensitive surface is exposed to light. The shutter opens, light enters the camera and exposes the film or sensor to light, and then the shutter closes.[9][14]
There are two types of mechanical shutters: the leaf-type shutter and the focal-plane shutter. The leaf-type uses a circular iris diaphragm maintained under spring tension inside or just behind the lens that rapidly opens and closes when the shutter is released.[11]
A focal-plane shutter. In this shutter, the metal shutter blades travel vertically.
More commonly, a focal-plane shutter is used.[9] This shutter operates close to the film plane and employs metal plates or cloth curtains with an opening that passes across the light-sensitive surface. The curtains or plates have an opening that is pulled across the film plane during exposure. The focal-plane shutter is typically used in single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, since covering the film (rather than blocking the light passing through the lens) allows the photographer to view the image through the lens at all times, except during the exposure itself. Covering the film also facilitates removing the lens from a loaded camera, as many SLRs have interchangeable lenses.[6][11]
A digital camera may use a mechanical or electronic shutter, the latter of which is common in smartphone cameras. Electronic shutters either record data from the entire sensor at the same time (a global shutter) or record the data line by line across the sensor (a rolling shutter).[6] In movie cameras, a rotary shutter opens and closes in sync with the advancement of each frame of film.[6][15]
The duration for which the shutter is open is called the shutter speed or exposure time. Typical exposure times can range from one second to 1/1,000 of a second, though longer and shorter durations are not uncommon. In the early stages of photography, exposures were often several minutes long. These long exposure times often resulted in blurry images, as a single object is recorded in multiple places across a single image for the duration of the exposure. To prevent this, shorter exposure times can be used. Very short exposure times can capture fast-moving action and eliminate motion blur.[16][11][6][9] However, shorter exposure times require more light to produce a properly-exposed image, so shortening the exposure time is not always possible.
Like aperture settings, exposure times increment in powers of two. The two settings determine the exposure value (EV), a measure of how much light is recorded during the exposure. There is a direct relationship between the exposure times and aperture settings so that if the exposure time is lengthened one step, but the aperture opening is also narrowed one step, then the amount of light that contacts the film or sensor is the same.[9]
Metering
Main article: Light meter
A handheld digital light meter showing an exposure of 1/200th at an aperture of f/11, at ISO 100. The light sensor is on top, under the white diffusing hemisphere.
In most modern cameras, the amount of light entering the camera is measured using a built-in light meter or exposure meter.[c] Taken through the lens (called TTL metering), these readings are taken using a panel of light-sensitive semiconductors.[7] They are used to calculate optimal exposure settings. These settings are typically determined automatically as the reading is used by the camera’s microprocessor. The reading from the light meter is incorporated with aperture settings, exposure times, and film or sensor sensitivity to calculate the optimal exposure.[d]
Light meters typically average the light in a scene to 18% middle gray. More advanced cameras are more nuanced in their metering– weighing the center of the frame more heavily (center-weighted metering), considering the differences in light across the image (matrix metering), or allowing the photographer to take a light reading at a specific point within the image (spot metering).[12][16][17][6]
Lens
Main articles: Camera lens and Photographic lens design
The lens of a camera captures light from the subject and focuses it on the sensor. The design and manufacturing of the lens are critical to photo quality. A technological revolution in camera design during the 19th century modernized optical glass manufacturing and lens design. This contributed to the modern manufacturing processes of a wide range of optical instruments such as reading glasses and microscopes. Pioneering companies include Zeiss and Leitz.
Camera lenses are made in a wide range of focal lengths, such as extreme wide angle, standard, and medium telephoto. Lenses either have a fixed focal length (prime lens) or a variable focal length (zoom lens). Each lens is best suited to certain types of photography. Extreme wide angles might be preferred for architecture due to their ability to capture a wide view of buildings. Standard lenses commonly have a wide aperture, and because of this, they are often used for street and documentary photography. The telephoto lens is useful in sports and wildlife but is more susceptible to camera shake, which might cause motion blur.[18]
Focus
An image of flowers, with one in focus. The background is out of focus.
The distance range in which objects appear clear and sharp, called depth of field, can be adjusted by many cameras. This allows for a photographer to control which objects appear in focus, and which do not.
Due to the optical properties of a photographic lens, only objects within a limited range of distance from the camera will be reproduced clearly. The process of adjusting this range is known as changing the camera’s focus. There are various ways to accurately focus a camera. The simplest cameras have fixed focus and use a small aperture and wide-angle lens to ensure that everything within a certain range of distance from the lens, usually around 3 meters (10 ft.) to infinity, is in reasonable focus. Fixed focus cameras are usually inexpensive, such as single-use cameras. The camera can also have a limited focusing range or scale-focus that is indicated on the camera body. The user will guess or calculate the distance to the subject and adjust the focus accordingly. On some cameras, this is indicated by symbols (head-and-shoulders; two people standing upright; one tree; mountains).
Rangefinder cameras allow the distance to objects to be measured employing a coupled parallax unit on top of the camera, allowing the focus to be set with accuracy. Single-lens reflex cameras allow the photographer to determine the focus and composition visually using the objective lens and a moving mirror to project the image onto a ground glass or plastic micro-prism screen. Twin-lens reflex cameras use an objective lens and a focusing lens unit (usually identical to the objective lens) in a parallel body for composition and focus. View cameras use a ground glass screen which is removed and replaced by either a photographic plate or a reusable holder containing sheet film before exposure. Modern cameras often offer autofocus systems to focus the camera automatically by a variety of methods.[19]
Experimental cameras such as the planar Fourier capture array (PFCA) do not require focusing to take pictures. In conventional digital photography, lenses or mirrors map all of the light originating from a single point of an in-focus object to a single point at the sensor plane. Each pixel thus relates an independent piece of information about the far-away scene. In contrast, a PFCA does not have a lens or mirror, but each pixel has an idiosyncratic pair of diffraction gratings above it, allowing each pixel to likewise relate an independent piece of information (specifically, one component of the 2D Fourier transform) about the far-away scene. Together, complete scene information is captured, and images can be reconstructed by computation.
Some cameras support post-focusing. Post focusing refers to taking photos that are later focused on a computer. The camera uses many tiny lenses on the sensor to capture light from every camera angle of a scene, which is known as plenoptic technology. A current plenoptic camera design has 40,000 lenses working together to grab the optimal picture.[20]
Image capture on film
Main article: Film formats
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Traditional cameras capture light onto photographic plates, or photographic film. Video and digital cameras use an electronic image sensor, usually a charge-coupled device (CCD) or a CMOS sensor to capture images which can be transferred or stored in a memory card or other storage inside the camera for later playback or processing.
A wide range of film and plate formats have been used by cameras. In the early history plate sizes were often specific for the make and model of cameras although there quickly developed some standardization for the more popular cameras. The introduction of roll film drove the standardization process still further so that by the 1950s only a few standard roll films were in use. These included 120 films providing 8, 12 or 16 exposures, 220 films providing 16 or 24 exposures, 127 films providing 8 or 12 exposures (principally in Brownie cameras) and 135 (35mm film) providing 12, 20 or 36 exposures – or up to 72 exposures in the half-frame format or bulk cassettes for the Leica Camera range.
For cine cameras, film 35mm wide and perforated with sprocket holes was established as the standard format in the 1890s. It was used for nearly all film-based professional motion picture production. For amateur use, several smaller and therefore less expensive formats were introduced. 17.5mm film, created by splitting 35mm film, was one early amateur format, but 9.5mm film, introduced in Europe in 1922, and 16 mm film, introduced in the US in 1923, soon became the standards for “home movies” in their respective hemispheres. In 1932, the even more economical 8mm format was created by doubling the number of perforations in 16mm film, then splitting it, usually after exposure and processing. The Super 8 format, still 8mm wide but with smaller perforations to make room for substantially larger film frames, was introduced in 1965.
Film speed (ISO)
Traditionally used to tell the camera the film speed of the selected film on film cameras, film speed numbers are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system’s gain from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. Film speed is usually measured via the ISO 5800 system. The higher the film speed number, the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower number, the film is less sensitive to light.[21]
White balance
In digital cameras, there is electronic compensation for the color temperature associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that white light is registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that the colors in the frame will appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras, this function is served by the operator’s choice of film stock or with color correction filters. In addition to using white balance to register the natural coloration of the image, photographers may employ white balance to aesthetic end– for example, white balancing to a blue object to obtain a warm color temperature.[22]
Camera accessories
Flash
A flash provides a short burst of bright light during exposure and is a commonly-used artificial light source in photography. Most modern flash systems use a battery-powered high-voltage discharge through a gas-filled tube to generate bright light for a very short time (1/1,000 of a second or less).[e][17]
Many flash units measure the light reflected from the flash to help determine the appropriate duration of the flash. When the flash is attached directly to the camera—typically in a slot at the top of the camera (the flash shoe or hot shoe) or through a cable—activating the shutter on the camera triggers the flash, and the camera’s internal light meter can help determine the duration of the flash.[17][12]
Additional flash equipment can include a light diffuser, mount and stand, reflector, soft box, trigger and cord.
Other accessories
Accessories for cameras are mainly used for care, protection, special effects, and functions.
Lens hood: used on the end of a lens to block the sun or other light source to prevent glare and lens flare (see also matte box).
Lens cap: covers and protects the camera lens when not in use.
Lens adapter: allows the use of lenses other than those for which the camera was designed.
Filter: allows artificial colors or changes light density.
Lens extension tube: allows close focus in macro photography.
Care and protection: includes camera case and cover, maintenance tools, and screen protector.
Camera monitor: provides an off-camera view of the composition with a brighter and more colorful screen, and typically exposes more advanced tools such as framing guides, focus peaking, zebra stripes, waveform monitors (oftentimes as an “RGB parade”), vectorscopes and false color to highlight areas of the image critical to the photographer.
Tripod: primarily used for keeping the camera steady while recording video, doing a long exposure, and time-lapse photography.
Microscope adapter: used to connect a camera to a microscope to photograph what the microscope is examining.
Cable release: used to remotely control the shutter using a remote shutter button that can be connected to the camera via a cable. It can be used to lock the shutter open for the desired period, and it is also commonly used to prevent camera shake from pressing the built-in camera shutter button.
Dew shield: prevents moisture build-up on the lens.
UV filter: can protect the front element of a lens from scratches, cracks, smudges, dirt, dust, and moisture while keeping a minimum impact on image quality.
Battery and sometimes a charger.
Large format cameras use special equipment that includes magnifier loupe, viewfinder, angle finder, and focusing rail/truck. Some professional SLRs can be provided with interchangeable finders for eye-level or waist-level focusing, focusing screens, eyecup, data backs, motor-drives for film transportation or external battery packs.
Primary types
Single-lens reflex (SLR) camera
Main article: Single-lens reflex camera
Further information: Instant return mirror
Nikon D200 digital camera
In photography, the single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is provided with a mirror to redirect light from the lens to the viewfinder prior to releasing the shutter for composing and focusing an image. When the shutter is released, the mirror swings up and away, allowing the exposure of the photographic medium, and instantly returns after the exposure is finished. No SLR camera before 1954 had this feature, although the mirror on some early SLR cameras was entirely operated by the force exerted on the shutter release and only returned when the finger pressure was released.[23][24] The Asahiflex II, released by Japanese company Asahi (Pentax) in 1954, was the world’s first SLR camera with an instant return mirror.[25]
In the single-lens reflex camera, the photographer sees the scene through the camera lens. This avoids the problem of parallax which occurs when the viewfinder or viewing lens is separated from the taking lens. Single-lens reflex cameras have been made in several formats including sheet film 5×7″ and 4×5″, roll film 220/120 taking 8,10, 12, or 16 photographs on a 120 roll, and twice that number of a 220 film. These correspond to 6×9, 6×7, 6×6, and 6×4.5 respectively (all dimensions in cm). Notable manufacturers of large format and roll film SLR cameras include Bronica, Graflex, Hasselblad, Mamiya, and Pentax. However, the most common format of SLR cameras has been 35 mm and subsequently the migration to digital SLR cameras, using almost identical sized bodies and sometimes using the same lens systems.
Almost all SLR cameras use a front-surfaced mirror in the optical path to direct the light from the lens via a viewing screen and pentaprism to the eyepiece. At the time of exposure, the mirror is flipped up out of the light path before the shutter opens. Some early cameras experimented with other methods of providing through-the-lens viewing, including the use of a semi-transparent pellicle as in the Canon Pellix[26] and others with a small periscope such as in the Corfield Periflex series.[27]
Large-format camera
Main article: View camera
The large-format camera, taking sheet film, is a direct successor of the early plate cameras and remained in use for high-quality photography and technical, architectural, and industrial photography. There are three common types: the view camera, with its monorail and field camera variants, and the press camera. They have extensible bellows with the lens and shutter mounted on a lens plate at the front. Backs taking roll film and later digital backs are available in addition to the standard dark slide back. These cameras have a wide range of movements allowing very close control of focus and perspective. Composition and focusing are done on view cameras by viewing a ground-glass screen which is replaced by the film to make the exposure; they are suitable for static subjects only and are slow to use.
Plate camera
19th-century studio camera with bellows for focusing
Main article: Photographic plate
The earliest cameras produced in significant numbers were plate cameras, using sensitized glass plates. Light entered a lens mounted on a lens board which was separated from the plate by extendible bellows. There were simple box cameras for glass plates but also single-lens reflex cameras with interchangeable lenses and even for color photography (Autochrome Lumière). Many of these cameras had controls to raise, lower, and tilt the lens forwards or backward to control perspective.
Focusing of these plate cameras was by the use of a ground glass screen at the point of focus. Because lens design only allowed rather small aperture lenses, the image on the ground glass screen was faint and most Photographers had a dark cloth to cover their heads to allow focusing and composition to be carried out more easily. When focus and composition were satisfactory, the ground glass screen was removed, and a sensitized plate was put in its place protected by a dark slide. To make the exposure, the dark slide was carefully slid out and the shutter opened, and then closed and the dark slide replaced.
Glass plates were later replaced by sheet film in a dark slide for sheet film; adapter sleeves were made to allow sheet film to be used in plate holders. In addition to the ground glass, a simple optical viewfinder was often fitted.
Medium-format camera
Main article: Medium format
Medium-format cameras have a film size between the large-format cameras and smaller 35 mm cameras.[28] Typically these systems use 120 or 220 roll film.[29] The most common image sizes are 6×4.5 cm, 6×6 cm and 6×7 cm; the older 6×9 cm is rarely used. The designs of this kind of camera show greater variation than their larger brethren, ranging from monorail systems through the classic Hasselblad model with separate backs, to smaller rangefinder cameras. There are even compact amateur cameras available in this format.
Twin-lens reflex camera
Twin-lens reflex camera
Main article: Twin-lens reflex camera
Twin-lens reflex cameras used a pair of nearly identical lenses: one to form the image and one as a viewfinder.[30] The lenses were arranged with the viewing lens immediately above the taking lens. The viewing lens projects an image onto a viewing screen which can be seen from above. Some manufacturers such as Mamiya also provided a reflex head to attach to the viewing screen to allow the camera to be held to the eye when in use. The advantage of a TLR was that it could be easily focused using the viewing screen and that under most circumstances the view seen in the viewing screen was identical to that recorded on film. At close distances, however, parallax errors were encountered, and some cameras also included an indicator to show what part of the composition would be excluded.
Some TLRs had interchangeable lenses, but as these had to be paired lenses they were relatively heavy and did not provide the range of focal lengths that the SLR could support. Most TLRs used 120 or 220 films; some used the smaller 127 films.
Compact cameras
Instant camera
Main article: Instant camera
After exposure, every photograph is taken through pinch rollers inside of the instant camera. Thereby the developer paste contained in the paper ‘sandwich’ is distributed on the image. After a minute, the cover sheet just needs to be removed and one gets a single original positive image with a fixed format. With some systems, it was also possible to create an instant image negative, from which then could be made copies in the photo lab. The ultimate development was the SX-70 system of Polaroid, in which a row of ten shots – engine driven – could be made without having to remove any cover sheets from the picture. There were instant cameras for a variety of formats, as well as adapters for instant film use in medium- and large-format cameras.
Subminiature camera
Main article: Subminiature camera
Subminiature spy camera
Subminiature cameras were first produced in the nineteenth century and use film significantly smaller than 35mm. The expensive 8×11mm Minox, the only type of camera produced by the company from 1937 to 1976, became very widely known and was often used for espionage (the Minox company later also produced larger cameras). Later inexpensive subminiatures were made for general use, some using rewound 16 mm cine film. Image quality with these small film sizes was limited.
Folding camera
Main article: Folding camera
The introduction of films enabled the existing designs for plate cameras to be made much smaller and for the baseplate to be hinged so that it could be folded up, compressing the bellows. These designs were very compact and small models were dubbed vest pocket cameras. Folding roll film cameras were preceded by folding plate cameras, more compact than other designs.
Box camera
Kodak box camera
Main article: Box camera
9Box cameras were introduced as budget-level cameras and had few, if any controls. The original box Brownie models had a small reflex viewfinder mounted on the top of the camera and had no aperture or focusing controls and just a simple shutter. Later models such as the Brownie 127 had larger direct view optical viewfinders together with a curved film path to reduce the impact of deficiencies in the lens.
Rangefinder camera
Rangefinder camera, Leica c. 1936
Main article: Rangefinder camera
As camera lens technology developed and wide aperture lenses became more common, rangefinder cameras were introduced to make focusing more precise. Early rangefinders had two separate viewfinder windows, one of which is linked to the focusing mechanisms and moved right or left as the focusing ring is turned. The two separate images are brought together on a ground glass viewing screen. When vertical lines in the object being photographed meet exactly in the combined image, the object is in focus. A normal composition viewfinder is also provided. Later the viewfinder and rangefinder were combined. Many rangefinder cameras had interchangeable lenses, each lens requiring its range- and viewfinder linkages.
Rangefinder cameras were produced in half- and full-frame 35 mm and roll film (medium format).
Motion picture cameras
Main article: Movie camera
Further information: Digital movie camera
A movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a still camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession, commonly at a rate of 24 frames per second. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved.[31]: 4
Cameras that capture many images in sequence are known as movie cameras or as cine cameras in Europe; those designed for single images are still cameras. However, these categories overlap as still cameras are often used to capture moving images in special effects work and many modern cameras can quickly switch between still and motion recording modes.
A ciné camera or movie camera takes a rapid sequence of photographs on an image sensor or strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the ciné camera takes a series of images, each called a frame, through the use of an intermittent mechanism.
The frames are later played back in a ciné projector at a specific speed, called the frame rate (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person’s eyes and brain merge the separate pictures to create the illusion of motion. The first ciné camera was built around 1888 and by 1890 several types were being manufactured. The standard film size for ciné cameras was quickly established as 35mm film and this remained in use until the transition to digital cinematography. Other professional standard formats include 70 mm film and 16 mm film whilst amateur filmmakers used 9.5 mm film, 8 mm film, or Standard 8 and Super 8 before the move into digital format.
The size and complexity of ciné cameras vary greatly depending on the uses required of the camera. Some professional equipment is very large and too heavy to be handheld whilst some amateur cameras were designed to be very small and light for single-handed operation.
Professional video camera
Arri Alexa, a digital movie camera
Main article: Professional video camera
Further information: Video camera
A professional video camera (often called a television camera even though the use has spread beyond television) is a high-end device for creating electronic moving images (as opposed to a movie camera, that earlier recorded the images on film). Originally developed for use in television studios, they are now also used for music videos, direct-to-video movies, corporate and educational videos, marriage videos, etc.
These cameras earlier used vacuum tubes and later electronic image sensors.
Camcorders
A Sony HDV Camcorder
Sony HDR-HC1E, a HDV camcorder.
Main article: Camcorders
A camcorder is an electronic device combining a video camera and a video recorder. Although marketing materials may use the colloquial term “camcorder”, the name on the package and manual is often “video camera recorder”. Most devices capable of recording video are camera phones and digital cameras primarily intended for still pictures; the term “camcorder” is used to describe a portable, self-contained device, with video capture and recording its primary function.
Digital camera
Main article: Digital camera
Disassembled Digital Camera
Further information: Digital image, Digital imaging, Digital photography, Digital single-lens reflex camera, and Digital video
A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes digital images and videos, and stores them for later reproduction.[32] They typically use semiconductor image sensors.[33] Most cameras sold today are digital,[34] and they are incorporated into many devices ranging from mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles.
Digital and film cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens of variable aperture to focus light onto an image pickup device.[35] The aperture and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being captured or recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Most digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound. Some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing.
Consumers adopted digital cameras in the 1990s. Professional video cameras transitioned to digital around the 2000s–2010s. Finally, movie cameras transitioned to digital in the 2010s.
The first camera using digital electronics to capture and store images was developed by Kodak engineer Steven Sasson in 1975. He used a charge-coupled device (CCD) provided by Fairchild Semiconductor, which provided only 0.01 megapixels to capture images. Sasson combined the CCD device with movie camera parts to create a digital camera that saved black and white images onto a cassette tape.[36]: 442 The images were then read from the cassette and viewed on a TV monitor.[37]: 225 Later, cassette tapes were replaced by flash memory.
In 1986, Japanese company Nikon introduced an analog-recording electronic single-lens reflex camera, the Nikon SVC.[38]
The first full-frame digital SLR cameras were developed in Japan from around 2000 to 2002: the MZ-D by Pentax,[39] the N Digital by Contax’s Japanese R6D team,[40] and the EOS-1Ds by Canon.[41] Gradually in the 2000s, the full-frame DSLR became the dominant camera type for professional photography.[citation needed]
On most digital cameras a display, often a liquid crystal display (LCD), permits the user to view the scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed.[5]: 6–7 [42]: 12
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